Censorship of Electronic Communication Systems Essay

Communication system of society is changing rapidly with the time. In ancient ages people use to communicate with shouting. If people are much more apart from one another the letter writing was the only means of communication just before 500 years. Due to rapid development of science, now a days a message can be passed to millions of people who all are scattered in whole world by a simple electronic communication system. Due to electronic communication devices true as well as false message can be spread to the people with in short time, this may cause negative impact on society and country. For shake of betterment sometime it is necessary to censor some of the news, ideas, books etc in the electronic communication. Electronic Communication. Every day, in our work and in our leisure time, we come in contact with and use a variety of modern communication systems and communication media, the most common being the telephone, radio, television, and the Internet. Through these media we are able to communicate (nearly) instantaneously with people on different continents, transact our daily business, and receive information about various developments and events of note that occur all around the world. Electronic mail and facsimile transmission have made it possible to rapidly communicate written messages across great distances. Facebook, twiter, Hi5, blogs, online radio, online newspaper etc are the easiest way to spread a news or rumor. Censorship. Censorship — the control of the information and ideas circulated within a society — has been a hallmark of dictatorships throughout history. In the 20th Century, censorship was achieved through the examination of books, plays, films, television and radio programs, news reports, and other forms of communication for the purpose of altering or suppressing ideas found to be objectionable or offensive. The rationales for censorship have varied, with some censors targeting material deemed to be indecent or obscene; heretical or blasphemous; or seditious or treasonous. Thus, ideas have been suppressed under the guise of protecting three basic social institutions: the family, the church, and the state. Censorship is the suppression of speech or other public communication which may be considered objectionable, harmful, sensitive, or inconvenient as determined by a government, media outlet, or other controlling body. It can be done by governments and private organizations or by individuals who engage in self-censorship. It occurs in a variety of different contexts including speech, books, music, films, and other arts, the press, radio, television, and the Internet for a variety of reasons including national security, to control obscenity, child pornography, and hate speech, to protect children, to promote or restrict political or religious views, and to prevent slander and libel. It may or may not be legal. Many countries provide strong protections against censorship by law, but none of these protections are absolute and it is frequently necessary to balance conflicting rights in order to determine what can and cannot be censored. Example of Censorship: 1. Mobile network coverage was not allowed in Chittagong hill districts for insurgency problem. Insurgents and miscreants used to communicate with each other and operate against general people. 2. Censorship is also imposed on social media like facebook, tweeter, YouTube in many Muslim country like Syria, Pakistan , Bangladesh, Indonesia etc for protesting against disrespect to their beloved prophet. 3. People below 18 years are not allowed to watch or visit some of the adult site or web/books. 4. Recently in our country its one of the hot topic .Some blogger insulted our beloved prophet through the blog. To stop violation among people Bangldesh government stop some of the blogs. Benefits of Censorship It is evident that the hotly debated issue concerning media censorship is hardly started, especially in today’s ever changing media. With the ever changing medial rules and regulations, media authorities are always on their toes with regards to evaluating what is fit for publication or broadcast. This article aims at highlighting both the pros and cons of censorship. 1. National Issue: a. In present days a country involve in developing nuclear weapon impasses ban on telecasting or broadcasting any news regarding nuclear weapon subject. b. A scandal or spreading obnoxious picture of very high official of the country needs a immediate censorship on electronic midea. 2. Censorship on news: During martial law special censorship is done in print and electronic media. 3. Protects young children. The most obvious benefit of censorship includes radical regulations aimed at protecting children from obscene content. Moreover, media censorship help prevent hate speech and other organizations that spread hate ideologies. By filtering media content, parents are sure that their children are safe from obscene content. 4. Upholds social value Internet censorship, on the other hand suppresses the sharing of information to such an extent that some websites are not accessible. In fact, some countries from different parts of the world have installed internet/media censorship to help keep the values and tradition restored/ or alive. With that said, media censorship plays an essential role in safeguarding moral and social value in the society. 5. Protects against sexism and racism We are all familiar with the saying that our children are future leaders. Many folks have devoted their time to molding their children’s ‘’future’’. Since children learn from their peers and what they see on television, media censorship aims to protect them against sexism, racism and segregation. That way, children are raised well and with admirable social values.

A Campaign against KFC Corporation MGNT Essay

When contemplating critics of business and defenders of capitalism, the ongoing debate by The People for Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) against fast food restaurants should be mentioned. On January 6, 2003 a little girl named Payton Hull organized a PETA demonstration outside a KFC. The demands were for KFC to require the chicken’s suppliers to treat the chickens ethically in a humane way while processing them. In retrospect I agree with this request but in everyday life I just do not stop to think about how my food is processed. When I read and prepare to do paperwork on this subject it always tends to make my stomach a little uneasy. PETA organized and founded by Ingrid Newkirk has been very successful thus far in swaying many fast food restaurants to submit to request of transparency. KFC called the attacks â€Å"corporate terrorism†. Ingrid Newkirk even went as far as writing a nasty letter to the president of KFC stating that it was just an accident that the K FC president was born who she was instead of a chicken. Like me most consumers do not think where the chickens come from because we see the end final product. Which that being said it makes us realize that events held by PETA brings those images and staggering treatment procedures to the forefront. The organization has been successful with more than 1.2 million supporters. They create sit ins, use the internet and social media, and also go as far as using sexuality to get the point across. Former Playboy Playmates wearing bikinis pass out veggie hot dogs in Washington DC at the Annual Hot Dog Lunches. See more: Experiment on polytropic process Essay

A History of the Issue of the Gender Wage Gap in America

A History of the Issue of the Gender Wage Gap in America The gender wage gap has been around since women began having jobs and careers in the economy. In the beginning of the wage gap was purely doing to discrimination as well as social stereotypes, now it has become more complicated than that. The issue today has evolved into a complex issue which combines our American culture, business economics politics and social culture. As a result, some are skeptical of the issue and some are very adamant in their mind set. The Equal Pay Act was initiated during the Kennedy administration. Since then, the gender wage gap has been narrowing every year, but it still does exist in the United States. The gender wage gap is the difference between what women get paid and what men get paid for doing the same job. Each year and pay quota women are paid 59 cents more than before which may be a good thing, more or less they the pay roll are not equal for working women and working men in the field. People have been trying to prove whether the gender wage gap i s institute, or unimportant since before the first act was passed. In the 1963 the gender wage gap was a huge issue; women made only 63% of what men made in the same positions. As time has progressed, women now make on average 77% of what men make in the same position. Every second a baby is born in the United States, according to the U.S. Census, and with a baby comes big responsibility. Whether it’s fair or not, the social norm is the woman stays at home, while the man goes to work to pay the bills. Since many women feel the pressures of family obligations more than the men do, they often are forced to choose between their family and their careers. Accordingly women statistically don’t put in as many overtime hours as men, says April Kelly-Woessner, a political science professor at Elizabethtown College. Employers complain that women regularly choose family obligations over their jobs. In politics men believe that women should not be in the field because they are women; though can have the same education women in the feature will eventually have families and have kids to take care of. With that comes multiple respponicbities. Thus women would have to retire and quit their current job to take care of their growing family. Many companies believe that men can do a better job than women because men do nessecarrly need to be worried about their running the household since its mainly the women’s job as the â€Å"House Keeper†. When many companies say this it sparks a debate, riot, and protest on the working pay roll of working women. To this day, there is still no definitive reason why, but the gap seems to close little by little each year. Can we contribute that to women standing up for themselves more, working harder to prove their worth, or even challenging the system? T.J. Billitteri wrote the article entitled Gender pay gap touching base on the important fact which is women working and sharing the same career title as a man are making far less money (March 14, 2008).CQ Researcher, 18, 241-264.Billitteri begins his article touching base on a large lawsuit of Ledbetter vs. Goodyear tire. Ledbetter, one of few females in her supervisory position, realized she was making $559.00 a month less than the males in the same position. She received around $3 million in back pay and damages. That case stirred up a lit of press on the pay gap issue and put emphasis on bills such as the Fair Pay Act. Recognized female state officials are pushing the enforcement of Fair Pay Acts and Equal Pay Acts more and more on Congress and the Senate still to this day. Billitteri (2008) states with those in effect men and women would have equal compensation when working in the same field. A prime example is a women working as a Chief Executive makes on average 22 percent of what a male Chief Executive makes. Looking at the 2006 U.S. Census statistics it showed â€Å"the pay gap at about 77 percent of the men’s median full-time, year-round earnings.† (Billitteri 2008). In Billitteris’ article he discusses how when hiring a female the company takes into account the possibilities for maternity leave, higher insurance needs, time off to care for children, and a raised risk for sexual harassment claims. It has become apparent that women are intimidated to seek out executive or other high paying positions In the 21st Century the number of women enrolling in higher education institutions is surpassing the numbers of men enrolled. The graduation rates of women from high school and higher education are most often higher than for men. The number of women graduates from most professional occupations, including higher paying medicine, law and business, will exceed the number of men graduates in the near future. In numerous occupational areas with a majority of women graduates, salaries already surpass salaries in occupational areas with a majority of men graduates. The idea that the majority of women are working the same types of jobs, and same amount of hours but still being paid much less than men is causing much concern. In recent history the gender gap is slowly decreasing. Young women are shrinking the education gay and earning degrees such as a masters degree and bachelors degree. In fact, women are earning more bachelor and masters degrees than men. In addition, women are also finding careers in law, business and medical schools. Women are starting to over come the limits of gender in the labor market. They are no longer settling for nurses, secretaries or salesclerks. Women are overcoming the great gender gap. Over the years studies have taken place in order to try and resolve this problem concerning the gender gap. According to the tables on pages thirty nine through forty the studies that presented show that women earn seventy seven percent of what men make during an average of fifteen years, but the studies which show the true incomes pay between the two different sexes shows us that the gap is much greater. Women are actually only making sixty two percent of what men are earning. The figure is summed up when the mens average earnings were at $49,068 and womens were far below the mens income at $ 29,507 for the fifteen year average

Management 2 (protective security) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Management 2 (protective security) - Essay Example Efficiency has been defined as measure of productivity or operational excellence concerned with operational margins improvement and cost minimization. Effectiveness on the other hand is associated with the business’s ability to identify and embrace opportunities of business via exchange relationships. As a result effectiveness is concerned with a company’s plan to develop a growth that is sustainable within its market (Stefanos, 2007). My organization has invested heavily and made tremendous efforts in balancing these two critical aspects of operations management all in an effort to increase the market share and maintain competitive advantage. The objectives of my organization are essentially to increase the market share and decrease the overall costs of running the organization. The target is to increase our market share from the current 15% to 20% within a period of two years. Another target is to introduce certain changes within the organization such that the overall costs would reduce by 5% within a period of one year. These changes include reducing field managers by 50% and employ more Close protection officers with advanced qualification. The organization had an objective of increasing its market share. The company embarked on a market wide research effort to identify client needs that were not being met. The organization realized that many business entities with huge capital bases required specialized protection service from the protective security firms. This service required CPO’s with a special kind of skill set which many security companies lacked. This created a need for the company to hire more CPO’s with the necessary skill set resulting in increased operational cost. After a thorough cost and benefits analysis, the company decided it would be more profitable to hire five specialized CPO’s to meet this need while at

Leadership Skills for the Criminal Justice Professional Essay

Leadership Skills for the Criminal Justice Professional - Essay Example Thus it can be understood that individuals getting involved in this profession would be required to possess certain skills like sensibility, observational powers, communication ability, knowledge of the legal system for which he is working, as well as leadership skills. The need for the leadership skills arise since these professionals would require making decisions on severe issues in regard to the security against the crimes. Thus a criminal security professional not only performs his own role, but he is also involved in leading others who might be working under his guidance. His leadership skills would assist him taking appropriate decisions as well as guide and motivate others to perform efficiently towards the successful achievement of their objectives (Qualities of Good Criminal Justice Professionals, 2011). Thus the quality of leadership can be understood to have significance in the concerned profession and the individuals getting involved in the profession need to develop thi s to perform their roles efficiently towards steps against criminal activities. Such leadership skills are required to be maintained in their professional as well as personal lives such that they are efficient in their roles even in personal cases of justice where criminal activities are possible at different times and situations. The value of ethics has significance in the decision making of the criminal justice since justice is a field where moral values are reflected whose implications are felt on the surrounding human kind. The relationship between the crime and the legal system, the laws against the criminal activities, the limitations of punishing a criminal, are certain factors that have to be sincerely taken in to consideration by the criminal justice professional and hence involve the issue of ethics and virtue. Moreover, an understanding of the ethical principles increases the sense of the

THE ECONO,Y AND MONOPOLIES Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

THE ECONO,Y AND MONOPOLIES - Essay Example Monopoly is a concept that strides under macroeconomics. In addition, it is a situation when there is a single seller in the market who acts like the godfather of all products; it means that only the seller may alter prices of the products according to his own intentions. Below mentioned are three reasons (Allison, 2009) in which monopoly would not be efficient: There has been a consensus many times practically that a government intervenes in the decision making of the country in economic activities like monopoly. United States (US) is one of those economies that used antitrust policies to stop a monopoly from occurring. There are several companies that faced problems here in the US and the name of Microsoft is one of them, largest company of software development in the country. The government of the US took several actions against the company to restrict their quota of manufacturing products in order not to build monopolistic stance within the economy. Apart from that, Microsoft was obliged to disclose everything in front of the public before the making and launching of any product in order to minimize the effects of monopoly to comply with the standards and to be in contact with the economic consequences with the country of

Study proposal Research Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Study - Research Proposal Example to Isabel Cavill – a senior retail analyst who specializes in luxury retail markets mentioned that China’s retail market can increase up to 14% between 2012 to 2013 (Red Luxury, 2012). To examine the impact of China’s economic growth on the luxury fashion market, this study will conduct a primary research survey study to determine the consumers’ willingness to spend on luxury goods in times of a strong economic growth. Basically, the first part of the proposed research methodology will focus on identifying the demographic profile of the research survey participants whereas the second part will focus on determining consumers’ purchasing habit in times of economic growth. (See Appendix I on page 5) A descriptive statistics such as the computation of frequency and percentage will be used to measure the research survey respondents’ demographic profile. Using anchors of 1 = strongly disagree and 5 = strongly agree, a five-point Likert scale type of research questions will be used to determine the Chinese consumers’ willingness to purchase luxury items in times of economic growth (David and Sutton, p. 167). Branigan, T. (2011, April 26). The Guardian. Retrieved May 13, 2012, from Chinas taste for high-end fashion and luxury brands reaches new heights: Vogue China editions the size of a doorstop, 960,000 millionaires and rising, and now the aspirational class are buying: http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/apr/26/china-super-rich-demand-luxury-brands Hutzler, K. (2011, July 20). Luxury Daily. Retrieved May 13, 2012, from Chinese fashion market to triple in size over next 10 years: BCG: http://www.luxurydaily.com/six-trends-brands-need-to-be-aware-of-before-entering-chinese-market-study/ Red Luxury. (2012, February 15). Retrieved May 24, 2012, from How Does a Shifting Economy Impact China’s Luxury Market?:

The challenge of differentiation and integration Assignment

The challenge of differentiation and integration - Assignment Example It is a formidable challenge in most organizations. This paper looks at the challenge of differentiation with specific reference to Google. Founded in 1998 by Larry Page and Sergey Brin in 1998, Google has grown to become a big company with over 12,000 employees. Google operates an intricate network of activities in various locations globally. It has established offices in various locations including in states such as California, Illinois, New York, Texas, Oklahoma, Arizona, Washington, DC, Oregon, Michigan and South Carolina. Google has also established various international offices in locations such as the Middle East, Africa, Europe and Asia. As such, differentiation and integration becomes an imperative challenge to Google. Differentiation refers to the process by which an organization separates itself into various key components (Lawrence, and Lorsch 3). It is a common phenomenon among large organizations. Consequently, as an organization grows larger and expands its activities further, the more differentiated it becomes. Be that as it may, as an organization becomes more differentiated, the various components become more independent as they are conferred with a great deal of autonomy. Therefore, the business culture of such an organization may significantly differ as you move from one component to another. Differentiation is usually done based on varied premises. For example, an organization may decide to differentiate basing on the tasks or on the product offering. In this regards, an organization may opt to divide into departments that produce a given product and establish finance and marketing department for each of the differentiated product. Google has been differentiated into different departments including Information Technology, Engineering, Support, People Operations, Knowledge, Advertising, Technical Infrastructure, Mobile and Digital

Governance Regulation and Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Governance Regulation and Ethics - Essay Example The main conflict which is presented in the film is based on consumer protection, specifically in relation to the environment. This occurs first when the families file a claim about the company putting toxic waste into the environment, specifically which leads to leukemia and other health problems among the consumers. As the story line continues, the problems with health from the waste and lack of environmental concern continue to increase. The issues relate to several problems and questions of what the stand point should be with the company as well as what is required in terms of responsibility and obligation to potential consumers through the environmental concerns that are approached. The concept of relationships with consumers is the first problem which is related to the film. The consumers are unaware of the health problems and there is not disclosure of what is occurring with the environmental concerns or health, leaving each of the individuals susceptible to becoming ill. The right to know is followed by questions of moral responsibility, corporate obligation and the commercial context, all which are violated. The lack of morality is based on the known factors which attribute to the toxic waste and how this will affect those in the region. This is followed by corporate obligations that are not followed, specifically which are inclusive of corporate social responsibility which is ignored with the only focus on production and money that needs to be made within the environment. The commercial context follows this with the advertising of the company becoming negative as well as unfair consumer contracts based on misleading concepts of the rules and regulations being followed within the company (Nelson, 2005: 96). The concept of consumer protection within the business as well as other legalities relate to this impact the business and consumers in several ways with the expectations with the business. In any business, the marketing and advertising, as well as t he brand identity, is expected to have a specific perception and attitude about the company. The advertisements, which represent a positive identity with the consumers, are furthered with an understanding that the business acts in specific ways within society. When the context is broken, consumers, stakeholders and others believe that there is a violation of the relationship which has been created. Since this is communicated as a promise from the company, specifically in relation to the strategies and implementation within the company, it causes the relationships to not be protected and leads to false pretenses with the business. The corporate responsibility and consumer protection then intertwine with the understanding that the relationship is built on the corporation having the responsibility to care about the consumer (Werther, Chandler, 2011: 105). The concept of consumer protection and false advertising is followed by other barriers that are often created with consumer relation ships. This is related to the stakeholder agreements, investments and other negotiations that have taken places with businesses. Often, these lead to more profits as well as expectations which are taken. If the communication and relationships with others involved in the

Proposal to apply in Phd program in applied linguistics Thesis

Proposal to apply in Phd program in applied linguistics - Thesis Example Monolithic Arabization of language policy and planning in an equally autochthonous environment of transformation would more likely produce some hetero-linguistic phenomena such as surrealist literature on the subject of linguistic dynamism and context-centric adaptation (Coulmas, 1994). The institutional parameters that have been put in place in countries like Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates (UAE) have basically helped in this process of Arabization of policy and planning environments (Sharkey, 2008). This study would be focused on the institutional, governmental and academic influences on linguistic transformation of the Arab society. This proposal attempts to identify the underlying causes of Arabization with a view to understanding a very significant body of knowledge that has been either ignored or less emphasized due to convenience and as an effort to avoid embarrassment. Arabization is not a simple process of language and culture enrichment. In fact it is a rigorous effort at acculturating an otherwise independent linguistic process of enrichment. This process requires to be explained in greater detail with particular emphasis on the merits and demerits of linguistic acculturation of a societal paradigm. Literature Review The literature review of this research effort would focus attention on the dynamic relations between Arabization of language policy and planning environments within the Arab world as already existing literature

Mentorship Meeting Worksheet Essay Example for Free

Mentorship Meeting Worksheet Essay Please complete this sheet with your mentor and submit it to your instructor. Date of Meeting: Meeting Duration: 1. Meeting notes – what was discussed during your meeting? Discipline in your work environment, being responsible with yourself and your coworkers and help the best possible way to help work get done in a moderate time. 2. What issues have you encountered since the last meeting and how did you address them? Sexual harassment in a work environment, 0 tolerance to this issue. You should always listen to both ends no matter what is the circumstance and always give the benefit of the doubt. 3. Discuss a change your mentor implemented and what types of challenges he or she encountered. What were some of the successful and unsuccessful points during the implementation? My mentor told me of a big issue she encounter at her company that lasted for a while, miscommunication between management. Each manager or supervisor was following their own taught and ideas there was no organization and accurate communication with each other. It got to a point where she was thinking of putting her resignation. She took a stand and made some changes and brought to the company professional team from outside, they started to create new policies, laws and regulations for all employees to follow. The success at the end was better communication especially between the managers and at the end the rest of the personnel new what guides and goals to follow to success.

The Vision of the Researcher as a Neutral Social Scientist Essay Example for Free

The Vision of the Researcher as a Neutral Social Scientist Essay The approach to any of the social scientists has always been one of detachment.   Any researcher or scientist in any of the fields of Social Science will emphasize the need for the scientist to maintain a neutral stance and maintain a certain level of distance from the research subjects.   Recently, there have been schools of thought that challenge this perception, arguing that once a researcher has been â€Å"captured† he becomes a participant in the â€Å"fierce fight to construct reality† (Latour and Woolgar, 1979, pg 31). Other schools of thought criticize the vision of the researcher as a neutral social scientist by insisting that there is no way that a researcher can maintain neutrality in this field (Mulkay, 1983).   These criticisms on the vision of the researcher as a neutral social scientist now raise a relevant issue in this field pertaining to what is necessary to become an effective researcher. This discourse will therefore seek to resolve the issue regarding the neutrality of researchers in social science by first identifying the particular needs of social science as a discipline and then by analyzing the traits that have made the researcher effective.   The next segment will discuss the relevance of maintaining neutrality as a researcher or social scientist. The analysis portion will attempt to shed light on the criticisms raised regarding this issue and to show how they may be effective traits or characteristics of researchers.   Finally, this study will attempt to synthesize the proper traits that make for an effective researcher given the complexity of the issues surrounding the current discipline of social science by proposing that the neutral approach may not always be best suited for every study in this field. The Social Sciences   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Social Sciences are basically characterized as academic disciplines that study and examine the human aspects of the world.   While social sciences studying subjective, inter-subjective and objective or structural aspects of society, the scientific method, including quantitative and qualitative methods is often used in this field.   Thus social science had a need for theoretical purity which was addressed by the scientific method (Sasson, 1997).   The triumphs of mankind in the field of natural sciences such as biology and physics planted the seed for the idea that human society and actions could be studied under the framework of the â€Å"scientific method†.   The prominence of this idea soared as it provided hope that a complete understanding of the nature of humans was possible and that the affairs of human beings could now be more rationally controlled.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One of the greatest problems of the field of social sciences lies in the fact that there have been problems delineating the role of social scientists due to the nature of their work and the relative significance of the field that they are studying (Sasson, 1997).   The role of the researcher in social sciences has been affected by the perception of people that social science does not provide a clear line as to the role it plays, whether as a pure researcher, a technocrat or as a public moralist.   This is the source of most of the controversies regarding the vision of the researcher as a neutral social scientist. The Researcher   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A researcher must possess certain traits and characteristics to preserve the theoretical purity and integrity of any scientific work under the scientific method.   This trait however is made most difficult to possess because of the human tendency to create bias or to completely detach oneself from other social beings.   There are however certain guidelines and rules that are helpful in delineating the role and setting the amount of â€Å"acceptable† involvement that an effective researcher may have with the research subjects.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As mentioned in the previous section, there have been problems with regard to the role of researchers and thus creating controversy over their neutrality.   For the purposes of this section, the role of a social scientist as a pure researcher and what makes him effective will be briefly discussed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   An effective researcher is able to properly understand the qualitative and quantitative approaches to empirical research.   Ideally, an effective researcher is able to come up with conclusions or theories regarding the action of humans in society by simply just â€Å"crunching the numbers† (Chubin, 2003, pg 75).    The quantitative was seen as the more accurate method as it was in line with the principle of the scientific method and since it principally worked by gathering data through objective methods.   This enabled researchers to provide relevant information concerning relations, comparisons, and predictions.   This was the initial attempt at removing the investigator from the investigation, or in this case, detaching the researcher from the research subject (Smith, 1983).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As the social sciences began to expand and it became apparent that the scientific method of employing a quantitative approach was not enough, more and more disciplines in the social sciences began requiring that the interview become a more interested part, or more involved in the research study that had to be conducted (Jacob, 1988).   This led to the emphasis now on maintaining the neutrality as a researcher. Relevance of Neutrality as a Researcher   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As previously mentioned, the most important aspect of being an effective researcher lies in being able to maintain total or at least an acceptable level of impartiality with regard to the subject matter as well as the research subjects.   More often than not, most researches become drawn into the conflict because of the nature of man as a social being (Wolcott, 1990).   Social Sciences, as the name implies, demands a certain level of interaction between the researcher and the subjects for the study which has in turn led to the criticism that it is impossible to attain total impartiality in the field of Social Sciences.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Participant Observation is one of the key tasks in the social sciences and it deals with involvement in the development of the research object or study.   The problem here is that more often than not these acts are considered as acts of intervention on the part of the researcher and tend to affect the credibility and integrity of whatever research is being conducted (Hacking, 1983).   There for the relevance of such neutrality becomes apparent because for a researcher to be able to maintain a certain level of credibility and assume a certain moral standard, it becomes necessary to adopt a position that is neutral to the issue and neutral with the subjects of the study. Criticisms against Neutrality   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The foremost criticism against the neutrality of social scientists and researches is that the so called neutrality of any social scientist or researcher in the field of social sciences is a myth particularly when it comes to controversies surrounding the issue (Scott, 1990).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   â€Å"Neutral researchers of the social sciences†, according to Scott, Richards and Martin (1990), â€Å"will be always be thought of by participants as being on the side of the underdog† (pg 480).   Regardless of the fact that the researcher is neutral, whatever work he accomplishes, he will always been drawn into a debate concerning his topic (Collins, 1979). One field of social science where this has been prevalent is in controversy analysis.   While according to a study on this issue, â€Å"the disadvantage of studying controversies is that it may give an unrealistic picture of the day-to-day operations of normal science,† it cannot be denied that this is a growing field of interest and has also invited the participation of researchers of the social sciences in an attempt to further understand human behavior (Mulkay 1983). There is impossibility in keeping the neutrality that a researcher is required to possess particularly in this field.   Though a researcher may insist on his neutrality, the problem arises once the researcher is drawn into a debate surrounding the controversy and the neutrality that is demanded can no longer be maintained. What this school of thought therefore proposes is that in order for a researcher to maintain his impartiality particularly in this field or in other fields in the social sciences which require intervention and interaction, a certain level of acceptable â€Å"partiality† must be allowed for.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The next criticism is one against the utter impossibility of conducting experiments without any degree of interaction between the researcher and the subjects of the study in order to prevent any biases and involvement (Ribes, 2005).   The degree of intermingling and cross disciplines among the social sciences and even natural sciences today has created a problem for the researcher to maintain the vision of his neutrality (Bowker, 1999).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It has been accepted that Participant Observation is relevant in the conduct of research in the social sciences and that it does allow for a certain degree of involvement.   The problem now lies in the significance of the study as a totally neutral research study can quickly become a very biased study depending on the degree of relevance it has to society.   An example of this would be research on certain factors in society that contribute to violence. Too much intervention and involvement can lead to too much media participation that the sample becomes unusable.   Since social sciences deal with people, any intervention can be seen as contaminating the samples since people become aware of the study and may no longer react naturally.   It is clear however that there is a need for intervention because of the cross disciplines that have been developed over the years and it cannot be denied that such are more effective and accurate at coming up with ground breaking studies (Ribes, 2005).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The other major criticism is that social scientists are unable to clearly research anything without any biases because of the strong link or bond between social scientists or researches and the state (Baritz, 1960).   Relevant historical accounts state that even as early as 1662, England and France have utilized the services of social researchers to further the ends of the state (Popper, 1945).   The state is therefore theorized by some to be the father of social scientists and researchers and as such the social sciences cannot exist without the state.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This attack on the neutrality of researchers of the social sciences uses the findings that there has constantly been state support for the social sciences and as such these researches owe a certain allegiance to the state and cannot be considered as purely impartial because of this so called â€Å"intrinsic link† (Popper, 1945).   The strength of this argument lies in the assumption that without the state, no society can exist and therefore leading to the conclusion that social sciences cannot exist without society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   While there may be logic to this argument against the vision of the researcher as a neutral social scientist, emotionally detached and socially separated from their research subjects, this is the   weakest argument as such because it basis most of its arguments on unproven relationships.   The arguments presented in this criticism clearly show the bias of the researcher with regard to the issue and subject matter. This criticism, however, lends strength to the main flow of this discourse.   This shows that it is in the nature of the researcher as a human being to create certain assumptions and bias that make it impossible to maintain total impartiality and neutrality with respect to the field that he is currently involved in.   Secondly, this also shows how letting go of one’s neutrality in favor of bias and disposing of the scientific method can lead to very faulty assumptions and poorly conceived arguments. It is because of these reasons that lead to the findings that theory that the vision of the researcher as a neutral social scientist, emotionally detached and socially separated from their research subjects, cannot be totally abrogated and must be accepted to a certain degree while allowing for the field to progress given the various advancements in the field of social sciences. Application of Contemporary Social Theories   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In analyzing the criticisms against the vision of the researcher as a neutral scientist, it is relevant that this be analyzed in the context of contemporary social theories.   The first contemporary social theory that is relevant in this case is structural functionalism and how it shows the difficulty in maintaining a certain level of detachment from the subject of the study.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Structural Functionalism basically tackles the relationship of social activity of human beings to the overall social system that exists in their society (Barnard 2000).   The relevance of this theory in formulating the basic guidelines in guiding researches to maintain a neutral stance lies in the fact that all human beings, researchers included, belong to a basic social structure from which it is impossible to detach oneself from.   The fact that integral units of every society work together unconsciously towards the maintenance of overall social stability means that a researcher is also unconsciously involved in the social issue which he is studying (Barnard 2000).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Another theory of significance in this discourse is the views of contemporary feminism.   â€Å"Contemporary feminism†, according to Grosz, (1994), â€Å"is the negation of factors such as: relationship of gender, sexuality, and the daily lives of specific women to collective needs, capital, labor, and their relation in the mode of production.† (pg 153)   Essentially, the contribution of this contemporary social theory is that it provides a solid framework for establishing a method by which a researcher is able to maintain academic credibility and integrity by being able to participate objectively in the studies being conducted.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The method by which contemporary feminism has disconnected itself from the struggles of changing the social relations that affect women’s lives should serve as a model by which a researcher should also be able to disconnect himself from not only the subject matter of the study but the other factors as well (Grosz, 1994).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   These two perspectives on contemporary social theories then provide the backbone for the argument in the next segment which will show how a researcher can still be effective as a neutral social scientist. Effectiveness of a Researcher as a Neutral Social Scientist   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   This discourse has so far shown that the traditional method of maintaining total impartiality is very difficult if not impossible to achieve.   It defies that characterization of man as a social being and goes against the natural order of humans as social beings.   This leads one to the conclusion that there are positive points that one can learn from the criticisms.   It is therefore relevant at this point of this study to assess the validity of such criticisms and if possible synthesize the main points of the arguments to form a single guideline regarding the role of researchers and in the vision of maintaining not only the â€Å"perceived† neutrality but also the reliability and integrity of any work by a researcher in the field of the social sciences.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first key to being an effective researcher therefore lies in the ability to abide by the principles of the â€Å"scientific method† and in being able to conduct the research, analyze the data and properly maintain a certain distance from the subject matter (Scott, 1990).   Yet, it has been proven in this discourse that intervention is relevant and thus total neutrality cannot be maintained by the researcher.   This leads to the second key to the success and effectiveness of the researcher.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A researcher must therefore maintain the vision of impartiality and neutrality despite the participant observation that is required in the pursuit of certain studies (Collins, 1979).   While the researcher may be linked with and interact with the subject of the study, detachment is not totally necessary to maintain that neutrality that is required (Ribes, 2005).   This problem is also resolved in controversy resolutions and debates which, as previously mentioned, reveal whatever biases may have existed and at the same time this may also improve the integrity and credibility of the research project in question.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   It is therefore clear that the vision of researchers as a neutral social scientist emotionally detached and socially separated from their research subjects is not required in all aspects of the social sciences and can be accepted within a certain degree in order for this field to be able to advance the current level of understanding on society and of human interactions. Conclusion   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In conclusion, the vision of researchers as neutral social scientist, emotionally detached and socially separated from their research subjects is correctly criticized by most groups for the main reason that the demands of social sciences given all the various technological advances and methods by which impartiality may be threatened.   The danger that the integrity of the social sciences will be deeply questioned by the continued practice of total neutrality is apparent. In order to cope with the ever changing disciplines and to properly apply the deeper understanding of cultures, society and human interactions, it is important to adopt a method that is flexible enough to adapt to the needs of this discipline.   It is therefore important to maintain an acceptable degree of involvement or participation while still being aware of the unintended consequences that it may bring as well as the danger of too much intervention.    References: Baritz, L. (1960) The Servants of Power. A history of the use of social science in American industry, Wesleyan University. Barnard, A. (2000). History and Theory in Anthropology. Cambridge University Press Cambridge University Bowker, G. C. and Star, S. L. (1999) Sorting things out: classification and its consequences. MIT Press. Cambridge, Mass. Collins, H. M., and Pinch, T.J. (1979) The construction of the paranormal: Nothing unscientific is happening. In Sociological Review Monograph No. 27: On the margins of science: The social construction of rejected knowledge, edited by Roy Wallis, 237-70. Keele University Press: University of Keele. Chubin R., Daryl E., and Restivo S. (1983). The mooting of science studies: research programmes and science policy. In Science Observed: Perspectives on the Social Study of Science, Karin D. Knorr-Cetina and Michael Mulkay (eds), 53-83. London: Sage. Grosz, E. (1994) Volatile Bodies: Toward A Corporeal Feminism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. Indiana Hacking, I. (1983) Representing and intervening: introductory topics in the philosophy of natural science. Cambridge Cambridgeshire; New York, Cambridge University Press. 1983 Jacob, M. (1988) Utilization of social science knowledge in science policy: Systems of Innovation Social Science Information. 45: 431-462 Latour, A., Bruno, W. and Woolgar, S. (1979) Laboratory Life: The Social Construction of Scientific Facts. London: Sage. Mulkay, M, Potter, J. and Yearley, S. (1983). Why an analysis of scientific discourse is needed. In Science Observed: Perspectives on the Social Study of Science, ed. Karin D. Knorr-Cetina and Michael Mulkay, 171-203. London: Sage.    Popper, K.(1945) â€Å"Much of our social science still belongs to the Middle Ages., The Open Society and its Enemies. Princeton University Press. New Jersey Ribes, D. (2005) The Positions of the Social Scientist: Social and Technical Acts of Intervention Sociology and Science Studies, University of California-San Diego â€Å"Stufying Digital Library Users in the Wild JCDL Workshop Sasson, H. (1997) On Social Science London School of Economics Centennial Address, London School of Economics Press, London Scott, P, Richards, E. and Martin, B. (1990) Captives of Controversy: The Myth of the Neutral Social Researcher in Contemporary Scientific Controversies Published in Science, Technology, Human Values, Vol. 15, No. 4, Fall 1990, pp. 474-494 Smith, G. (1983) An International Review of Research in the Social Dimensions of Science and Technology Volume 13, No. 1 Sage Publications Wolcott, H.R. (1990) Qualitative inquiry in education: The continuing debate. New York. Teachers College Press Pp 121-152.

psychological disorders, symptoms, and possible causes

psychological disorders, symptoms, and possible causes A psychological disorder can occur at any stage in ones life and to anyone. Much like a physical disease such as cancer, they do not discriminate. In our society, there seems to be certain stigmas and stereotypes attached to psychological disorders (although there is more understanding in recent years) and counseling for them, even though many may be overcome, or at least managed in this way, and this is needed for not just your mind or emotional health, but also for your whole self , as your physical wellness is directly related to your mind and emotions. Sometimes referred to as the Bible of Psychiatry, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders is a manual that contains all the mental health disorders, the cause, prognosis, and treatment methods for each disorder. It is used to better understand the patients illness and needs, as well as treatment options. It is published by the American Psychiatric Association and uses a multidimensional approach to reach a diagnosis. The five dimensions are clinical syndromes, developmental disorders and personality disorders, physical condition, severity of psychological stressors, and highest level of functioning. The previous classification system, which is not current but still relevant to some classes, were two main categories: neurosis and psychosis. Neurosis is characterized by anxiety, often resulting from inner conflict. Psychosis is characterized by loss of contact with reality, delusional, irrational thoughts, and/or hallucinations. These have been replaced with specific classifications. The Anxiety Disorders, with the main feature in this category being abnormal or inappropriate anxiety which occurs when ones heart races, breathing increases, and muscles tense without any reason for them to do so, include the following: 1) Acute Stress Disorder- results from traumatic event in which the person responded with intense fear and helplessness. Symptoms include detachment, re-experiencing event, and significant anxiety. The disorder may resolve itself, or medication and therapy may be useful in preventing development of more serious disorder. Prognosis is very good. 2) Agoraphobia- generalized fear of being in places difficult to escape or embarrassing and without help is panic attack occurs. Prognosis is good when there is insight to development and with realization the fears are irrational. 3) Generalized Anxiety Disorder- overwhelming anxiety not related to specific event. Medication and therapy helpful to regain control over symptoms. Prognosis is good, however, underlying issues are more difficult to treat. 4) Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder- biological and psychological causes. Prognosis depends on response to medication and how deeply rooted the underlying issues are. 5) Panic Disorder- sudden attacks of intense fear. Treatment includes relaxation exercises and working through underlying issues. Prognosis is good if not left untreated to worsen and develop into Agoraphobia. 6) Phobias- extreme anxiety and fear associated with the object, situation, or avoidance that is disruptive to everyday functions. With behavioral therapy, prognosis is good. 7) Posttraumatic Stress Disorder- re-experiencing the traumatic event through nightmares, obsessive thoughts, and flashbacks, along with avoidance to anything that reminds the person of that event. Prognosis is moderate to good. Some can be treated with anxiety medication, but primarily psychological treatment. The category of Adjustment Disorders include Unspecified, with Anxiety, with Depressed Mood, with Disturbance of Conduct, with Mixed Anxiety and Depressed Mood, and with Mixed Disturbance of Emotions and Conduct. All of these disorders relate to a more difficult adjustment to a life situation than would normally be expected. Another category is called Dissociative Disorders, including Amnesia-loss of memory due to psychological factors, Dissociative Fugue- person disappears, forgets identity and past and begins a new life, Identity (known formerly as Multiple Personality Disorder), and Depersonalization Disorder. These include a disruption in consciousness, memory, identity, or perception. Eating Disorders is another category of psychological disorders. They include Anorexia Nervosa, known for failure to maintain body weight of at least 85% of what is expected, fear of losing control over weight, and typically a distorted body image. Bulimia Nervosa includes bingeing and purging. Impulse Control Disorders include the failure or extreme difficulty in controlling impulses despite the negative consequences. Included in these disorders is Intermittent Explosive Disorder, Kleptomania (stealing), Pathological Gambling, Pyromania (fire setting), Trichotillomania (recurrent pulling out of ones own hair). Mood Disorders include Bipolar Disorder (Manic Depressive)- mania at one extreme to major depression at the other, cycling between two extremes for days, weeks, or months, Cyclothymic Disorder, Dysthymic Disorder, Major Depressive Disorder. The primary symptom in this category is a disturbance of mood which is inappropriate, and exaggerated or a limited range of feelings. Feelings are to the extreme, having excess energy where sleep is not needed for days at a time, and during this time the decision making process is hindered. Paraphilias and Sexual disorders involve distressing and repetitive sexual fantasies, urges and behaviors that negatively impact ones life as they feel they are unable to control them. These include Exhibitionism, Fetishism, Frotteurism, Pedophilia, Sexual Masochism, Sexual Sadism, Transvestic Fetishism, and Voyeurism. Sexual Dysfunctions is the impairment in normal sexual functioning. This includes Dyspareunia, Female Orgasmic Disorder, Female Sexual Arousal Disorder, Gender Identity Disorder, Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder, Male Erectile Disorder, Male Orgasmic Disorder, Premature Ejaculation, Sexual Aversion Disorder, and Vaginismus. Primary Sleep Disorders are divided into Dyssomnias (related to amount, quality, and timing of sleep) and Parasomnias (abnormal behavior or psychological events that occur during sleep or sleep-wake transitions). Dyssomnias include Primary Insomnia, Primary Hypersomnia, and Narcolepsy. Parasomnias include Nightmare Disorder, Sleep Terror Disorder, and Sleepwalking Disorder. The major symptom of another category called Psychotic Disorders is psychosis, or delusions and hallucinations. Included in this category is Brief Psychotic Disorder, Delusional Disorder, Schizoaffective Disorder, Schizpphreniform, Shared Psychotic Disorder, and Schizophrenia ( split mind)- not all symptoms are present at once, including hearing voices, hallucinating, disordered thought, attentional difficulties, delusions, and catatonia (person freezes and appears to be in a trance). Prognosis is dependent on the age of onset and ranging from good to poor. Somatoform Disorders are those where symptoms suggest a medical condition but where no medical condition can be found by a physician. Included in this is Body Dysmorphic Disorder, Conversion Disorder (hysteria), Hypochondriasis Disorder (hypochondriac), Pain Disorder, and Somatization Disorder. There are two disorders in this category: Substance Abuse and Substance Dependence. A substance can be anything that is ingested in order to produce a high, alter ones senses, or otherwise affect functioning. The most common substance thought of in this category is alcohol although other drugs, such as cocaine, marijuana, heroin, ecstasy, special-K, and crack, are also included. Probably the most abused substances, caffeine and nicotine, are also included although rarely thought of in this manner. Personality Disorders are mental illnesses that share several unique qualities. They contain symptoms that are enduring and play a major role in most, sometimes all, aspects of the persons life. While many disorders vary in terms of symptom presence and intensity, personality disorders usually remain constant. To be diagnosed with a disorder in this category, a psychologist will look for the following criteria: Symptoms have been present for an extended period of time, are inflexible and pervasive, and are not a result of alcohol or drugs or another psychiatric disorder. The history of symptoms can be traced back to adolescence or early adulthood. The symptoms have caused and continue to cause significant distress or negative consequences in different aspects of the persons life. Symptoms are seen in at least two of the following areas: Thoughts (ways of looking at the world, thinking about self or others, and interacting), Emotions (appropriateness, intensity, and range of emotional functioning), Interpersonal Functioning (relationships and interpersonal skills), and Impulse Control. Disorders in this category are Antisocial Personality Disorder, Borderline Personality Disorder, and Narcissistic Personality Disorder. Through the biological perspective that is adopted from a medical approach and typically regards a malfunctioning brain as the cause of abnormal behavior. Many factors are considered to be potential causes of biological dysfunction, ranging from head injury to poor nutrition. Genetics, evolution, and viral infection are areas that have received a great deal of attention. Treatments by biological practitioners utilize psychotropic medications, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), and neurosurgery. The psychodynamic theory regards human behavior to be determined by underlying psychological influences that usually are unconscious. These influences (also called forces) are dynamic -the relationship between them gives rise to behavior. Abnormal symptoms are created when conflicts arise in this relationship. This theory states that all behavior is determined by childhood events and past experience. Treatment then consists of psychoanalysis, which involves bringing into conscious awareness the traumatic childhood conflicts that have been repressed, and resulting in resolution. The behavioral model of psychopathology suggests that abnormal responses, particularly phobias, were formed through a conditioning process, and also can be treated through new learning- a process known as behavior therapy. Abnormal functioning, according to cognitive theorists, is explained by realizing that everyone creates their view of the world that comprises their reality. If the view of an individual is flawed then unhealthy thoughts create dysfunctional behavior. Treatment with this approach involves therapy sessions which work to change a clients self-defeating beliefs and behaviors by showing their irrationality. It is believed that through rational analysis, people can understand their errors in light of the irrational beliefs and then construct a more rational way of seeing themselves, their world, and the events in their lives. The sociocultural approach holds that abnormal behavior is caused by the role that society and culture play in an individuals life. It considers societal norms, roles in the social environment, cultural background, family, and views of others. Sociocultural theorists focus on labels and rules of society, social networks, family structure, communication, cultural influences, and religious beliefs. These are the signs of mental illness are arranged into six categories: thinking, feeling, socializing, functioning, problems at home and poor self-care. These are symptoms of psychological disorders and none by themselves mean necessarily there is mental illness, such as bipolar disorder or depression. However, two or three of these signs of mental illness may indicate a type of psychological disorder. Psychotherapy and psychiatric medication are the two major treatment options as are social interventions, peer support and self-help. In some cases there may be involuntary detention and involuntary treatment. Stigma and discrimination add to the suffering associated with the disorders, and have led to social movements for change. The field of Global Mental Health has recently emerged and has been defined as the area of study, research and practice that places a priority on improving mental health and achieving equity in mental health for all people worldwide. Diagnostic practice in mental health services typically involves an interview where judgments are made of the appearance and behavior, self-reported symptoms, mental health history, and current life circumstances. The views of relatives or other third parties may be taken into account. A physical exam to check for ill health or the effects of medications or other drugs may be conducted. Psychological testing is sometimes used via paper-and-pen or computerized questionnaires, and in rare specialist cases neuroimaging tests may be requested, but these methods are more commonly found in research studies than routine clinical practice. Extreme mental illness, insanity, or psychotic disorders are defined by actions that fall out of the realm of normal human behavior. Standards of acceptability for behaviors vary with culture. When trying to determine if an eccentricity is a psychological disorder or simply immature or odd behavior, it is compared to the four factors commonly used to establish psychological dis orders. They are as follows: 1. Atypical behavior -that is psychologically disordered is outside the range of normal human behavior, which is defined by the culture or community. Just being different isnt enough to consider insanity or a psychological disorder. 2. Disturbing others. People are usually disturbed by insanity or psychological disorders, whether its excessively worrying about your son or being directly affected by harmful behavior. Whether a behavior is disturbing or abnormal may be subject to the culture, situation, and even the decade or century. 3. Maladaptive thoughts or behavior-often behaviors that dont allow people to adapt to life successfully. For example, hearing voices or being unable to leave the house because of an extreme fear. 4. Unjustifiable behavior-Certain abnormal behaviors arent seen as possible, believable, or supportable which means a mental health problem may be present. If an abnormal behavior is unjustifiable, its more likely to be a psychological disorder. After proper diagnosis, prognosis depends on the disorder, the individual and a number of other factors. Some disorders are for a short while and others may last a lifetime. Some disorders may be limited in their functional effects, while others may involve substantial disability and support needs. The degree of ability or disability may vary across different life domains. Continued disability has been linked to institutionalization, discrimination and social exclusion as well as to the properties of disorders. Some disorders are linked to increased rates of attempted and/or completed suicide or self-harm especially if intervention does not take place. Even though often characterized in negative terms, some mental states labeled as disorders can also involve above-average creativity, non-conformity, goal-striving, meticulousness, or empathy. Also the way the public sees and responds to disorders can change.

How To Annoy People Essay -- Process Essays

How To Annoy People This paper will attempt to explore how to annoy people in many different situations these categories are as follows: how to annoy people in restaurants, chat rooms, while driving, and in the grocery store. Also explored are annoying your roommate, your neighbors, public bathroom stall mates, your teacher or professor, and the police. The following are guaranteed ways to annoy at your favorite restaurant: Decline to be seated and simply eat their complementary mints by the cash register. Pretend you do not understand what your server is saying no matter how much he/she yells or how slowly they say it. Ask your server for an extra seat and place setting for your imaginary friend. Wander around the restaurant asking other diners for their parsley. Slurp your soup. Eat out with your friends and forget your wallet. Order a side of pork rinds with your filet mignon or pay for your dinner with pennies. Getting a rise out of people by annoying the heck out of them was never this easy before chat rooms. First, ONLY TYPE IN UPPERCASE or only type in lowercase, and dont use any punctuation either. Invent nonsense computer jargon in conversations and see if people play along to avoid looking ignorant, if they ask what it means be demeaning and rude rather than giving them an explanation. TalkLikeThisInChatRooms. CapitalizeTheBeginningOfEveryWordAndNeverUseSpaces. YouHaveNoIdeaHowAnnoyingThisCanGet. On the other hand, you could simply capitalize letters that ShouLDn't bE capitalized. Go into random chat rooms and say "Turkey," then leave and every 5 minutes, on the dot, send someone an instant message saying "Turkey" as well. Choose someone you do not like and annoy him/her until he/she leaves the chat room. Use the "find member" command and follow this person all over whatever online service you use. This may get you permanently kicked out of all the chat rooms, so make it worth it. Finally, e-mail some random person in a chat room and ask them why they keep harassing you. If your passengers are annoying you, get relief by annoying the other drivers around you. When driving at a slower speed, stay in the left-most lane and when there is a lot of traffic behind you, always drive 8-20 MPH slower than the speed limit. These will definitely get you the finger by everyone who finally gets past you, so use sparingly if weak hearted. When dri... ...assignments, or write your psychology paper on possible genetic anomalies that might cause a person to prefer anchovies. Finally, pwetend you have a speech impediment and awways type w's whenevew you weawwy want to type r's or l's. The last category in our exploration on how to annoy people is the police. We will call this category "How To Be a 3 Time Loser on Your First Dealing With The Police." If you really want to annoy the wrong person, simply use one of these lines the next time you get pulled over: "Aren't you the guy from The Village People?" or "Didn't I see you get your butt kicked on COPS?" You could also try "I pay your salary," "I thought you had to be in relatively good shape to be a police officer," "You're not going to check the trunk, are you," or "So, are you on the take, or what?" I do not recommend the next line unless you would like to experience police brutality, but here it is anyway: "Wow, you look like the guy in the picture on my girlfriend's night stand." I end this paper with my favorite how to annoy a police officer line which is "I was trying to keep up with traffic. Yes, I know there are no other cars around, that's how far they are ahead of me."

Greek Philosophers :: essays papers

Greek Philosophers Socrates, Plato and Aristotle had virtually the same beliefs about man's relation to the State, although Plato's political theory of the State was more rational than Socrates or Aristotle's. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle all believed that man was not self-sufficient, they believed man would be most happy living in a State. They also believed that all men wanted to live the truly good life where they could be in tune with the truth and achieve their ultimate goals. Although Socrates, Plato and Aristotle's political views of the State are similar, Plato's view is more rational than Socrates and Aristotle's in the sense that he created an ideal State. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle were three philosophers in ancient Greece who believed that no man was self-sufficient enough to live on his own. Plato believed "a State comes into existence because no individual is self-sufficing" (Stumph, 70). This theory of Plato's was also shared by Aristotle who said "He who is unable to live in society or who has no need because he is sufficient for himself, must either be a beast or a god" (Stumph, 103). These two views indicate the importance of a State to an individual according to Plato and Aristotle. All three philosophers believed that man would be much happier if he was part of a State rather than on his own. Socrates once stated "We are all more productive if we specialize in one thing rather than try to excel at many things" (Stumph, 40). Within the State Socrates believed that there would be a division of labour for the provision of food, shelter and clothing. An individual living outside of a State would have to provide thems! elves with these necessities. As Socrates stated above within the State you would specialize in one thing only, while a different individual would specialize in something else and this would allow the quality and the quantity of the product to increase. "Plato assumes that we are all born with physical and intellectual equipment that makes us suited to perform some tasks better than others" (Rice, 42). So now individuals only have to specialize in something that they are physically and intellectually suited for according to Plato. These three philosophers believed that if man could be more productive by specializing in something that they are suited for they would be happier. Aristotle made the point that "Every community is established with the view to some good; and that mankind always act in order to obtain that which they think good" (Copleston, 351). Socrates, Plato and Aristotle all believed that man needs to be

National Influenza Immunization Program - The Swine Flu of 1976 Essay

In 1976, due to an outbreak of influenza at Fort Dix, New Jersey, the United States set a precedent in immunology by attempting to vaccinate the entire population of the country against the possibility of a swine-type Influenza A epidemic. While a great many people were successfully immunized in a very short period of time, the National Influenza Immunization Program (NIIP) quickly became recognized as a failure, one reason being that the feared epidemic never surfaced at all. But this massive undertaking deserves more analysis than just a simple repudiation. For example, all evidence linked to the pathology, microbiology, and historical cycle of influenza and the outbreak at Fort Dix suggests that the reactions of the scientists and other personnel involved in the NIIP were correct. However, one must also acknowledge the many complications and misjudgments that plagued the program after its initiation, from biological difficulties, logistical problems, to tensions with the media. Th e swine flu is a historical event that needs to be evaluated, regarding both its successes and its failures, so that lessons can be learned for future immunization programs. While influenza, or the "flu", is not commonly recognized as an extremely lethal disease, the pathology of influenza, and especially of the kind found at Fort Dix, does suggest that an immunization program was a reasonable course to take in 1976. In the public's mind, influenza is often not seen as a specific disease, using interchangeable names for it like "flu", "gripe", and "virus". (Silverstein: 1) However, influenza is very different from an everyday low fever or "stomach flu". It is a respiratory infection, connected with a fever, coughing, and muscle aches, which often la... ...d be held responsible for not creating a more adaptable program that could deal with these occurrences. The NIIP must be evaluated for its drawbacks and its successes, so that people will not just see this as an unfortunate historical event, but can use it to help further immunization and disease-fighting programs in the future.    Works Cited The "Flu". Online. 17 Feb. 1999. Available: www.ultranet.com/~jkimball/BiologyPages/I/Influenza.html Laitlin, Elissa A. and Elise M. Pelletier. "The Influenza A/New Jersey(Swine Flu) Vaccine and Guillain-Barrà ©acute; Syndrome: The Arguments for Causal Association." Drugs and Devices Line, 1997. Online. 15 Feb. 1999. Available: www.hsph.harvard.edu/Organizations/ddil/swieflu.html Silverstein, Arthur M. Pure Politics and Impure Science: The Swine Flu Affair. Baltimore and London: The John Hopkins University Press, 1981.

Coping with Life Challenges Essay

Toni Cade Bambara, born March 25, 1939 in New York City; her mother was Helen Brent Henderson Cade. Bambara adopted that last name when she discovered it on a sketchbook her great-grandmother had. Bambara spent the first ten years of her life in Harlem, New York. In 1973, she published and essay in Redbook explaining what she liked about her mother. Bambara is an activist, novelist, writer, essayist, and a filmmaker. Bambara was influenced by her work as a social worker in the 1960’s. Bambara knew how the black community had been neglected and abused in the American society. Bambara became devoted to her community; she wrote primarily for her black community and in black dialect. Toni Cade Bambara wrote several short stories, one specifically was â€Å"The Lesson,† in this short story; she speaks on how to overcome struggles and stereotyping in the black community. In â€Å"The Lesson,† Toni Cade Bambara, uses characterization, style of language and setting; she also shows how she felt about how unfair the American society was through the eyes of a black woman. First, Bambara uses characterization. In â€Å"The Lesson† Bambara developed a strong and positive character who could teach us about valuable lessons in life. This character was a strong black woman named Miss Moore, who taught all the children in her community how to overcome the struggles in their community. Miss Moore first took the children to a store on Fifth Avenue, this store was the most expensive toy store the name of the store was F. A. O. Schwartz. The first life lesson was an expensive handcrafted sailboat, â€Å"Hand-crafted sailboat of fiberglass at one thousand one hundred and ninety-five dollars. † (Bambara) This lesson was to show the children the value of money, and how to value what they have and not what they want. In the second trial Bambara uses style of language, Miss Moore questioned the children on how they felt about the expensive sailboat. One of the characters in the story, Sylvia became upset with Miss Moore because out of all the children, she was the only one to get the point. Sylvia said, â€Å"I’m mad, but I won’t give her that satisfaction. So I slouch around bein very bored and say, Let’s go. †(Bambara) Sylvia realized that Miss Moore wanted them to see what type of environment they lived in and wanted them to think of ways to overcome those struggles in the future. Last, Bambara uses setting, Miss Moore, wanted the children to realize how unfair life was in the American society. Miss Moore wanted the children to see, that they had to overcome the stereotyping and become the opposite of what life was expected out of them. Miss Moore said, â€Å"Imagine for a minute what kind of society it is in which some people can spend on a toy what it would cost to feed a family of six or seven. What do you think? † (Bambara) Bambara’s main character knew what life expected out of them and she wanted the children to overcome the struggles, simply by experiencing them. In conclusion, the author felt that living within your society, you have to overcome the stereotyping and become the opposite of what life is expected of you. Toni Cade Bambara wanted her characters in â€Å"The Lesson,† to overcome society’s obstacles, cruelty, and devaluation and to discover their strengths, and to have pride within them. Toni Cade Bambara is universal and lives on in today’s society.

The Struggle For Social and Economic Equality in America

Discrimination The struggle for social and economic equality of Black people in America has been long and slow. It is sometimes amazing that any progress has been made in the racial equality arena at all; every tentative step forward seems to be diluted by losses elsewhere. For every â€Å"Stacey Koons† that is convicted, there seems to be a Texaco executive waiting to send Blacks back to the past. Throughout the struggle for equal rights, there have been courageous Black leaders at the forefront of each discrete movement. From early activists such as Frederick Douglass, Booker T. Washington, and W. E. B. DuBois, to 1960s civil rights leaders and radicals such as Martin Luther King, Malcolm X, and the Black Panthers, the progress that has been made toward full equality has resulted from the visionary leadership of these brave individuals. This does not imply, however, that there has ever been widespread agreement within the Black community on strategy or that the actions of prominent! Black leaders have met with strong support from those who would benefit from these actions. This report will examine the influence of two â€Å"early era† Black activists: Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. DuBois. Through an analysis of the ideological differences between these two men, the writer will argue that, although they disagreed over the direction of the struggle for equality, the differences between these two men actually enhanced the status of Black Americans in the struggle for racial equality. We will look specifically at the events leading to and surrounding the â€Å"Atlanta Compromise† in 1895. In order to understand the differences in the philosophies of Washington and Dubois, it is useful to know something about their backgrounds. Booker T. Washington, born a slave in 1856 in Franklin County, Virginia, could be described as a pragmatist. He was only able to attend school three months out of the year, with the remaining nine months spent working in coal mines. He developed the idea of Blacks becoming skilled tradesmen as a useful stepping-stone toward respect by the white majority and eventual full equality. Washington worked his way through Hampton Institute and helped found the Tuskeegee Institute, a trade school for blacks. His essential strategy for the advancement of American Blacks was for them to achieve enhanced status as skilled tradesmen for the present, then using this status as a platform from which to reach for full equality later. Significantly, he argued for submission to the white majority so as not to offend the power elite. Though he preached appeasement and a â€Å"hands off† attitude toward politics, Washington has been accused of wielding imperious power over â€Å"his people† and of consorting with the white elite. William Edward Burghardt DuBois, on the other hand, was more of an idealist. DuBois was born in Massachusetts in 1868, just after the end of the Civil War and the official end of slavery. A gifted scholar, formal education played a much greater role in DuBois's life than it did in Washington's. After becoming a Phi Beta Kappa graduate of Fisk and Harvard, he was the first Black to earn a Ph. D. from Harvard in 1895. DuBois wrote over 20 books and more than 100 scholarly articles on the historical and sociological nature of the Black experience. He argued that an educated Black elite should lead Blacks to liberation by advancing a philosophical and intellectual offensive against racial discrimination. DuBois forwarded the argument that â€Å"The Negro problem was not and could not be kept distinct from other reform movements. . . † DuBois â€Å"favored immediate social and political integration and the higher education of a Talented Tenth of the black population. His main interest was in the education of ‘the group leader, the man who sets the ideas of the community where he lives. . . † To this end, he organized the â€Å"Niagara movement,† a meeting of 29 Black business and professional men, which led to the formation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The crux of the struggle for the ideological center of the racial equality movement is perhaps best exemplified in Mr. DuBois's influential The Souls of Black Folk. In it, he makes an impassioned argument for his vision of an educated Black elite. DuBois also describes his opposition to Booker T. Washington's â€Å"Atlanta Compromise† as follows: â€Å"Mr. Washington represents in Negro thought the old attitude of adjustment and submission†¦ † According to DuBois, Washington broke the mold set by his predecessors: â€Å"Here, led by Remond, Nell, Wells- Brown, and Douglass, a new period of self-assertion and self- development dawned†¦. But Booker T. Washington arose as essentially the leader not of one race but of two–a compromiser between the South, the North, and the Negro. † DuBois reported that Blacks â€Å"resented, at first bitterly, signs of compromise which surrendered their civil and political rights, even though this was to be exchanged for larger chances of economic development. DuBois's point and, according to him, the collective opinion of the majority of the Black community, was that self- respect was more important than any potential future economic benefits. Before Washington's conciliatory stance gained a foothold, â€Å"the assertion of the manhood rights of the Negro by himself was the main reliance. † In other words, DuBois resented what he saw as Washington â€Å"selling† Black pride: â€Å"†¦ Mr. Washington's programme naturally takes an economic cast, becoming a gospel of Work and Money to such an extent as apparently almost completely to overshadow the higher aims of life. The compromise included, in DuBois's words, â€Å"that black people give up, at least for the present, three things,– â€Å"First, political power, Second, insistence on civil rights, Third, higher education of Negro youth,–and concentrate all their energies on industrial education, the accumulation of wealth, and the conciliation of the South. † The final point comprised the centerpiece both of Washington's strategy for the ultimate redemption of Black Americans and of DuBois's condemnation of that strategy. Indeed, Washington backed up his assertions by founding the Tuskeegee Institute as a trade school for young Black men. DuBois could not abide this type of appeasement. In his mind, this step was tantamount to the Black community telling the white community that, henceforth, Blacks would cease pretending to be equal to whites as human beings; rather, they would accept an overtly inferior social status as being worthy of maintaining the white majority's physical world, but unworthy of true equality, of conducting socio-cultural discourse with the mainstream society. The paradox must have been maddening for both men, especially Mr. Washington. He no doubt understood that, as a group, Blacks could never hope to progress to the point of equality from their position of abject poverty. Moreover, without skills, their hopes of escaping their economic inferiority were indeed scant. Washington's plan for blacks to at least become skilled artisans and tradesmen must have seemed logical to him from the standpoint of improving the economic lot of the average Black man. At the same time, he must have realized that, by accepting inferiority as a de- facto condition for the entire race, he may have broken the black spirit forever. In considering this matter, the writer is reminded of more recent events in American history–the affirmative action flap that occurred after Clarence Thomas's appointment to the U. S. Supreme Court, for example. Mr. Thomas, clearly a beneficiary of affirmative action, announced that he was nonetheless opposed to it. His argument was that if he had not been eligible for benefits under affirmative action programs, he would have still achieved his current position in the inner circle of this society's white power elite. Similarly, Booker T. Washington enjoyed access to the power elite of his time, but one must wonder whether President Roosevelt, for example, in his interactions with Mr. Washington, was not merely using the situation for public relations value. â€Å"[Mr. Washington] was ‘intimate' with Roosevelt from 1901 to 1908. On the day Roosevelt took office, he invited Washington to the White House to advise him on political appointments of Negroes in the south. † After all, he did not become a popular president by being oblivious to such political maneuvering. Perhaps Mr. DuBois was the more prescient visionary. Perhaps he understood what Mr. Washington did not, that after the critical historical momentum toward social acceptance that had been established prior to the late nineteenth century, if political pressure were not maintained, the cause of true equality would be lost forever. Moreover, DuBois understood that equality would not be earned through appeasement. From our perspective of over 100 years, we must admit that he may have been right. For example, in the aftermath of the â€Å"Atlanta Massacre† of September 22, 1906 and a similar incident in Springfield, Illinois, â€Å"it was clear to almost all the players that the tide was running strongly in favor of protest and militancy. â€Å"For six days in August, 1908, a white mob, made up, the press said, of many of the town's ‘best citizens,' surged through the streets of Springfield, Illinois, killing and wounding scores of Blacks and driving hundreds from the city. † However, it later turned out that DuBois was considered to be too extreme in the other direction. For example, as the NAACP became more mainstream, it became increasingly conservative, and this did not please DuBois, who left the organization in 1934. He returned later but was eventually shunned by Black leadership both inside and outside of the NAACP, especially after he voiced admiration for the USSR. In the political climate of the late 1940s and 1950s, any hint of a pro-communist attitude–black or white–was unwelcome in any group with a national political agenda. We can see, then, that neither Washington's strategy of appeasement nor DuBois's plan for an elite Black intelligentsia was to become wholly successful in elevating American Blacks to a position of equality. However, perhaps it was more than the leadership of any one Black man that encouraged African Americans to demand a full measure of social and economic equality.

Blood Donation

Imagine a happy healthy teen. He does well in school and is easy to get along with. Imagine he is diagnosed with leukemia and requires daily platelet and blood transfusions just to stay alive. Now, imagine he has a rare blood type that requires him to be moved to a larger hospital for treatment. This is just another thing for him and his family to worry about. Similar stories happen every day in the United States. It is estimated that every three seconds a patient in the U. S needs a blood transfusion. Donated blood saves 4. 5 million lives in America each year. Yet only 5% of the eligible U.  S population donates blood in any given year. This is a sad fact considering healthy donors are the only source of blood. Since it can not be made or harvested, there is no substitute. The blood supply in the US is consistently low, and the demand for it increases each year. Everyone in good health should donate blood at least once a year. There are many reasons why people should donate. First you should know that it is a safe and healthy thing to do. Not only do you get a free mini physical, including blood pressure check, heart rate, temperature and iron levels, but it is the fastest way to lose a pound! Also, disasters like car accidents, fires, and other trauma cases happen every day and these patients need blood, and rarely do they need only one pint. A bleeding trauma victim can run through 100 units of blood in no time. And because of our growing and aging population, as well as the huge expansion of health care facilities, our blood usage is growing at three times the national rate, and the usage of it outpaces donor collections. With it estimated that up to 85% of us will need blood in our life time it is unlikely that the 5% donating now can sustain the rest. Many people who do not donate give the same reasons. Number one is they do not like needles or are afraid to do so. Nearly everyone feels that way at first. However, most donors will tell you that you feel only a slight initial pinch, and 7-10 minutes later, you are finished. The second is that they did not know or were never asked to donate. More than 38,000 donations are needed every day in communities across the U. S. So it is important to spread the word. Another common excuse is fear of diseases. It is good to know that it is not possible to get AIDS by donating blood to the American Red Cross. A new sterile needle is used for each donor and discarded afterwards. So as you can see, it is safe, simple and most importantly it can save someone's life. If you do not know what is required of you, it is very simple. Anyone who is at least 17 years of age, weighs at least 110 pounds, and is in good health, can donate. The donation process, from the time you arrive until the time to you leave, is only about an hour. Less than one pint is taken during a donation and it is replaced naturally by the body within 24 hours. If you take the time to make one donation, you will wonder why you ever hesitated. If you are not convinced, image again the teen, fighting for his life. Now give him a face, a name; he is your cousin, your brother, your best friend. It could even be you. My question to you is why not? Blood donors are true heroes. In fact, your one blood donation will be broken down into several components, enabling you, with just one donation, to save up to three lives. If you know someone who donates blood regularly, I urge you to go with them next time, or even on your own, and do the same.

Discussed from Paperco, Inc. Essay

This case study is discussed from Paperco, Inc. point of view of whether they should avail the tax benefits and cost savings in replacing the mechanical drying equipment. Recommendation Based on the analysis below in this memo, Paperco should purchase new mechanical drying equipment now in advance in anticipation of the passage of new tax legislation. Purchasing the equipment now maintains a positive Net Present Value for the capital project if the legislation is not enacted, or if the new legislation is enacted and the capital project is contracted early enough so that it is grandfathered in. With tax legislation grandfathered, the project gets the benefit of the new lower corporate tax rate and the old ACRS depreciation method. Although when presented with this project one year ago in 1984, Paperco was able to be postponed this capital project since it was merely â€Å"moderately attractive†. The prospect of new tax legislation being enacted as rumored makes the Net Present Value of the project comparatively more positive if the tax law changes are enacted, so Paperco should act now before tax law changes make this project infeasible. Background In November 1985, Jane Rogers a marketing representative of Pressco, Inc. approached Paperco, Inc. to sell its mechanical drying equipment at a price of $2.9 million. This new equipment would replace less efficient facilities that had been placed in service late in December 1979. According to Roger, the total cost saving (exclusive of depreciation charges) from the proposed installation of new equipment amounted to $560,000 per year. Of this amount, $360,000 in savings was expected to come from more efficient fuel utilization. One year earlier, Rogers had been unsuccessful in interesting Paperco’s management in purchase of new equipment. Paperco felt that the investment in  new equipment as moderately attractive at that time. However, beginning 1986, new tax legislation had been rumored to: (1) eliminate the investment tax credit for new equipment; (2) extend depreciation lives for new equipment, and (3) reduce the corporate tax rate from 46% to 34%. Paperco’s senior management was concerned that the basic thrust in the firm’s sales of mechanical drying equipment. Paperco’s management suddenly expressed significant interest in moving forward with the purchase of new equipment and seemed anxious to sign a binding contract. Discussion and Analysis We need to analyze when is the best situation for Paperco, Inc. to replace the old facilities with new drying equipment that will enable the Company to avail greater tax benefits and cost savings. There are three alternative courses of action available to Paperco, Inc. to decide whether to buy the new drying equipment or not. I. Buy the new equipment yet no legislation is enacted Advantages Continue to use a 5 years ACRS depreciation model with higher depreciation expense Efficiency in operations due to new equipment Disadvantages Retain all tax credits due to using 5 year ACRS depreciation model in equipment with useful life of 7 years Tax rate continued at 46% II. Buy the new equipment when the new tax proposal is enacted and bind the contract soon enough to be grandfathered or before the enactment of the law Advantages Continue to use a 5 years ACRS depreciation model with higher depreciation expense Efficiency in operations due to new equipment Investment tax credit that will reduce Paperco’s taxes Tax rate reduced to 34% from 46% Disadvantages Depreciation life of the equipment will not be extended III. Buy the new equipment when the new proposed tax is enacted but do not bind the contract in time to be grandfathered or after the enactment of the law Advantages Efficiency in operations due to new equipment Tax rate reduced to 34% from 46% Depreciation life of the equipment will be extended by 2 years Disadvantages MACRS depreciation model will generate lower depreciation expenses than the ACRS depreciation model No investment tax credit due to binding the contract after the law was enacted Option I in which the rumored tax proposal is not enacted and that the new equipment replaces the old equipment in December 1986. Paperco would retain all tax credits due to the fact the machine has been in service for 84 months, and use a 5-year ACRS depreciation model for the new equipment. This option has a positive NPV of $2,619,745. Option II in which the new tax proposal is enacted. The new equipment is installed in December 1986. Paperco signs a binding contract soon enough to be â€Å"grandfathered†, this allows Paperco to receive the 8% tax credit and use ACRS depreciation. At the same time, their tax rate would fall to 34%. Paperco would benefit from this more favorable â€Å"grandfathered† tax approach. Option II has a positive NPV of $3,414,104. Option III in which the new tax proposal is enacted and Paperco installs the new equipment in December 1986, but they do not sign a binding contract in time to be â€Å"grandfathered† and receive the 8% invest ment tax credit and use ACRS depreciation. The company will use MACRS and a depreciation period of 7 years. The NPV of the project with this timing and structure is $3,228,044. Without the â€Å"grandfathered† tax allowance, the new tax legislation makes the project unattractive based on lower Net Present Value. Calculations Re-affirmation There are three options available to Paperco, Inc. with respect to this capital investment: Option I: New legislation is passed and Paperco qualifies for â€Å"grandfathering,† Option II: New legislation is passed and Paperco does not qualify for â€Å"grandfathering,† Option III: Buy the new equipment when the new proposed tax is enacted but do not bind the contract in time to be grandfathered or after the enactment of the law Last year (1984) investment in new drying equipment pursuant to Option I was not pursued despite its attractiveness as a viable capital project, perhaps because it was possible that a better alternative might arise. However, given the impending tax legislation, the possible alternatives are now known, and they are not good. Under the new tax legislation without grandfathering, the project is not viable. Paperco should invest in the new equipment (with binding contract) because not doing so soon enough, the project will not a viable alternative, while investing in the equipment is a viable alternative (i.e., the Net Present Value of the project in Option II is higher than other alternatives).